# My book “Deep Learning from first principles” now on Amazon

Note: The 2nd edition of this book is now available on Amazon

My 4th book(self-published), “Deep Learning from first principles – In vectorized Python, R and Octave” (557 pages), is now available on Amazon in both paperback ($18.99) and kindle ($9.99/Rs449). The book starts with the most primitive 2-layer Neural Network and works  its way to a generic L-layer Deep Learning Network, with all the bells and whistles.  The book includes detailed derivations and vectorized implementations in Python, R and Octave.  The code has been extensively  commented and has been included in the Appendix section.

# Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 8

## 1. Introduction

You don’t understand anything until you learn it more than one way. Marvin Minsky
No computer has ever been designed that is ever aware of what it’s doing; but most of the time, we aren’t either. Marvin Minsky
A wealth of information creates a poverty of attention. Herbert Simon

This post, Deep Learning from first Principles in Python, R and Octave-Part8, is my final post in my Deep Learning from first principles series. In this post, I discuss and implement a key functionality needed while building Deep Learning networks viz. ‘Gradient Checking’. Gradient Checking is an important method to check the correctness of your implementation, specifically the forward propagation and the backward propagation cycles of an implementation. In addition I also discuss some tips for tuning hyper-parameters of a Deep Learning network based on my experience.

My post in this  ‘Deep Learning Series’ so far were
1. Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 1 In part 1, I implement logistic regression as a neural network in vectorized Python, R and Octave
2. Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 2 In the second part I implement a simple Neural network with just 1 hidden layer and a sigmoid activation output function
3. Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 3 The 3rd part implemented a multi-layer Deep Learning Network with sigmoid activation output in vectorized Python, R and Octave
4. Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 4 The 4th part deals with multi-class classification. Specifically, I derive the Jacobian of the Softmax function and enhance my L-Layer DL network to include Softmax output function in addition to Sigmoid activation
5. Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 5 This post uses the Softmax classifier implemented to classify MNIST digits using a L-layer Deep Learning network
6. Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 6 The 6th part adds more bells and whistles to my L-Layer DL network, by including different initialization types namely He and Xavier. Besides L2 Regularization and random dropout is added.
7. Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 7 The 7th part deals with Stochastic Gradient Descent Optimization methods including momentum, RMSProp and Adam
8. Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 8 – This post implements a critical function for ensuring the correctness of a L-Layer Deep Learning network implementation using Gradient Checking

Checkout my book ‘Deep Learning from first principles: Second Edition – In vectorized Python, R and Octave’. My book starts with the implementation of a simple 2-layer Neural Network and works its way to a generic L-Layer Deep Learning Network, with all the bells and whistles. The derivations have been discussed in detail. The code has been extensively commented and included in its entirety in the Appendix sections. My book is available on Amazon as paperback ($18.99) and in kindle version($9.99/Rs449).

You may also like my companion book “Practical Machine Learning with R and Python- Machine Learning in stereo” available in Amazon in paperback($9.99) and Kindle($6.99) versions. This book is ideal for a quick reference of the various ML functions and associated measurements in both R and Python which are essential to delve deep into Deep Learning.

Gradient Checking is based on the following approach. One iteration of Gradient Descent computes and updates the parameters $\theta$ by doing
$\theta := \theta - \frac{d}{d\theta}J(\theta)$.
To minimize the cost we will need to minimize $J(\theta)$
Let $g(\theta)$ be a function that computes the derivative $\frac {d}{d\theta}J(\theta)$. Gradient Checking allows us to numerically evaluate the implementation of the function $g(\theta)$ and verify its correctness.
We know the derivative of a function is given by
$\frac {d}{d\theta}J(\theta) = lim->0 \frac {J(\theta +\epsilon) - J(\theta -\epsilon)} {2*\epsilon}$
Note: The above derivative is based on the 2 sided derivative. The 1-sided derivative  is given by $\frac {d}{d\theta}J(\theta) = lim->0 \frac {J(\theta +\epsilon) - J(\theta)} {\epsilon}$
Gradient Checking is based on the 2-sided derivative because the error is of the order $O(\epsilon^{2})$ as opposed $O(\epsilon)$ for the 1-sided derivative.
Hence Gradient Check uses the 2 sided derivative as follows.
$g(\theta) = lim->0 \frac {J(\theta +\epsilon) - J(\theta -\epsilon)} {2*\epsilon}$

In Gradient Check the following is done
A) Run one normal cycle of your implementation by doing the following
a) Compute the output activation by running 1 cycle of forward propagation
b) Compute the cost using the output activation

B) Perform gradient check steps as below
a) Set $\theta$ . Flatten all ‘weights’ and ‘bias’ matrices and vectors to a column vector.
b) Initialize $\theta+$ by bumping up $\theta$ by adding $\epsilon$ ($\theta + \epsilon$)
c) Perform forward propagation with $\theta+$
d) Compute cost with $\theta+$ i.e. $J(\theta+)$
e) Initialize  $\theta-$ by bumping down $\theta$ by subtracting $\epsilon$ $(\theta - \epsilon)$
f) Perform forward propagation with $\theta-$
g) Compute cost with $\theta-$ i.e.  $J(\theta-)$
h) Compute $\frac {d} {d\theta} J(\theta)$ or ‘gradapprox’ as$\frac {J(\theta+) - J(\theta-) } {2\epsilon}$using the 2 sided derivative.
i) Compute L2norm or the Euclidean distance between ‘grad’ and ‘gradapprox’. If the
diference is of the order of $10^{-5}$ or $10^{-7}$ the implementation is correct. In the Deep Learning Specialization Prof Andrew Ng mentions that if the difference is of the order of $10^{-7}$ then the implementation is correct. A difference of $10^{-5}$ is also ok. Anything more than that is a cause of worry and you should look at your code more closely. To see more details click Gradient checking and advanced optimization

After spending a better part of 3 days, I now realize how critical Gradient Check is for ensuring the correctness of you implementation. Initially I was getting very high difference and did not know how to understand the results or debug my implementation. After many hours of staring at the results, I  was able to finally arrive at a way, to localize issues in the implementation. In fact, I did catch a small bug in my Python code, which did not exist in the R and Octave implementations. I will demonstrate this below

## 1.1a Gradient Check – Sigmoid Activation – Python

import numpy as np
import matplotlib

train_X, train_Y, test_X, test_Y = load_dataset()
#Set layer dimensions
layersDimensions = [2,4,1]
parameters = initializeDeepModel(layersDimensions)
#Perform forward prop
AL, caches, dropoutMat = forwardPropagationDeep(train_X, parameters, keep_prob=1, hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc="sigmoid")
#Compute cost
cost = computeCost(AL, train_Y, outputActivationFunc="sigmoid")
print("cost=",cost)
gradients = backwardPropagationDeep(AL, train_Y, caches, dropoutMat, lambd=0, keep_prob=1,                                   hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc="sigmoid")

epsilon = 1e-7
outputActivationFunc="sigmoid"

# Set-up variables
# Flatten parameters to a vector
parameters_values, _ = dictionary_to_vector(parameters)
num_parameters = parameters_values.shape[0]
#Initialize
J_plus = np.zeros((num_parameters, 1))
J_minus = np.zeros((num_parameters, 1))

# Compute gradapprox using 2 sided derivative
for i in range(num_parameters):
# Compute J_plus[i].
thetaplus = np.copy(parameters_values)
thetaplus[i][0] = thetaplus[i][0] + epsilon
AL, caches, dropoutMat = forwardPropagationDeep(train_X, vector_to_dictionary(parameters,thetaplus), keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc)
J_plus[i] = computeCost(AL, train_Y, outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc)

# Compute J_minus[i].
thetaminus = np.copy(parameters_values)
thetaminus[i][0] = thetaminus[i][0] - epsilon
AL, caches, dropoutMat  = forwardPropagationDeep(train_X, vector_to_dictionary(parameters,thetaminus), keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc)
J_minus[i] = computeCost(AL, train_Y, outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc)

difference =  numerator/denominator

#Check the difference
if difference > 1e-5:
print ("\033[93m" + "There is a mistake in the backward propagation! difference = " + str(difference) + "\033[0m")
else:
print ("\033[92m" + "Your backward propagation works perfectly fine! difference = " + str(difference) + "\033[0m")
print(difference)
print("\n")
# The technique below can be used to identify
# which of the parameters are in error
print(m)
print("\n")
print(n)

## (300, 2)
## (300,)
## cost= 0.6931455556341791
## [92mYour backward propagation works perfectly fine! difference = 1.1604150683743381e-06[0m
## 1.1604150683743381e-06
##
##
## {'dW1': array([[-6.19439955e-06, -2.06438046e-06],
##        [-1.50165447e-05,  7.50401672e-05],
##        [ 1.33435433e-04,  1.74112143e-04],
##        [-3.40909024e-05, -1.38363681e-04]]), 'db1': array([[ 7.31333221e-07],
##        [ 7.98425950e-06],
##        [ 8.15002817e-08],
##        [-5.69821155e-08]]), 'dW2': array([[2.73416304e-04, 2.96061451e-04, 7.51837363e-05, 1.01257729e-04]]), 'db2': array([[-7.22232235e-06]])}
##
##
## {'dW1': array([[-6.19448937e-06, -2.06501483e-06],
##        [-1.50168766e-05,  7.50399742e-05],
##        [ 1.33435485e-04,  1.74112391e-04],
##        [-3.40910633e-05, -1.38363765e-04]]), 'db1': array([[ 7.31081862e-07],
##        [ 7.98472399e-06],
##        [ 8.16013923e-08],
##        [-5.71764858e-08]]), 'dW2': array([[2.73416290e-04, 2.96061509e-04, 7.51831930e-05, 1.01257891e-04]]), 'db2': array([[-7.22255589e-06]])}

## 1.1b Gradient Check – Softmax Activation – Python (Error!!)

In the code below I show, how I managed to spot a bug in your implementation

import numpy as np
N = 100 # number of points per class
D = 2 # dimensionality
K = 3 # number of classes
X = np.zeros((N*K,D)) # data matrix (each row = single example)
y = np.zeros(N*K, dtype='uint8') # class labels
for j in range(K):
ix = range(N*j,N*(j+1))
t = np.linspace(j*4,(j+1)*4,N) + np.random.randn(N)*0.2 # theta
X[ix] = np.c_[r*np.sin(t), r*np.cos(t)]
y[ix] = j

# Plot the data
#plt.scatter(X[:, 0], X[:, 1], c=y, s=40, cmap=plt.cm.Spectral)
layersDimensions = [2,3,3]
y1=y.reshape(-1,1).T
train_X=X.T
train_Y=y1

parameters = initializeDeepModel(layersDimensions)
#Compute forward prop
AL, caches, dropoutMat = forwardPropagationDeep(train_X, parameters, keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc="softmax")
#Compute cost
cost = computeCost(AL, train_Y, outputActivationFunc="softmax")
print("cost=",cost)
gradients = backwardPropagationDeep(AL, train_Y, caches, dropoutMat, lambd=0, keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc="softmax")
# Note the transpose of the gradients for Softmax has to be taken
L= len(parameters)//2
print(L)
gradient_check_n(parameters, gradients, train_X, train_Y, epsilon = 1e-7,outputActivationFunc="softmax")

cost= 1.0986187818144022
2
There is a mistake in the backward propagation! difference = 0.7100295155692544
0.7100295155692544

{'dW1': array([[ 0.00050125,  0.00045194],
[ 0.00096392,  0.00039641],
[-0.00014276, -0.00045639]]), 'db1': array([[ 0.00070082],
[-0.00224399],
[ 0.00052305]]), 'dW2': array([[-8.40953794e-05, -9.52657769e-04, -1.10269379e-04],
[-7.45469382e-04,  9.49795606e-04,  2.29045434e-04],
[ 8.29564761e-04,  2.86216305e-06, -1.18776055e-04]]),
'db2': array([[-0.00253808],
[-0.00505508],
[ 0.00759315]])}

{'dW1': array([[ 0.00050125,  0.00045194],
[ 0.00096392,  0.00039641],
[-0.00014276, -0.00045639]]), 'db1': array([[ 0.00070082],
[-0.00224399],
[ 0.00052305]]), 'dW2': array([[-8.40960634e-05, -9.52657953e-04, -1.10268461e-04],
[-7.45469242e-04,  9.49796908e-04,  2.29045671e-04],
[ 8.29565305e-04,  2.86104473e-06, -1.18776100e-04]]),
'db2': array([[-8.46211989e-06],
[-1.68487446e-05],
[ 2.53108645e-05]])}

Gradient Check gives a high value of the difference of 0.7100295. Inspecting the Gradients and Gradapprox we can see there is a very big discrepancy in db2. After I went over my code I discovered that I my computation in the function layerActivationBackward for Softmax was


# Erroneous code
if activationFunc == 'softmax':
dW = 1/numtraining * np.dot(A_prev,dZ)
db = np.sum(dZ, axis=0, keepdims=True)
dA_prev = np.dot(dZ,W)
# Fixed code
if activationFunc == 'softmax':
dW = 1/numtraining * np.dot(A_prev,dZ)
db = 1/numtraining *  np.sum(dZ, axis=0, keepdims=True)
dA_prev = np.dot(dZ,W)


After fixing this error when I ran Gradient Check I get

## 1.1c Gradient Check – Softmax Activation – Python (Corrected!!)

import numpy as np
N = 100 # number of points per class
D = 2 # dimensionality
K = 3 # number of classes
X = np.zeros((N*K,D)) # data matrix (each row = single example)
y = np.zeros(N*K, dtype='uint8') # class labels
for j in range(K):
ix = range(N*j,N*(j+1))
t = np.linspace(j*4,(j+1)*4,N) + np.random.randn(N)*0.2 # theta
X[ix] = np.c_[r*np.sin(t), r*np.cos(t)]
y[ix] = j

# Plot the data
#plt.scatter(X[:, 0], X[:, 1], c=y, s=40, cmap=plt.cm.Spectral)
layersDimensions = [2,3,3]
y1=y.reshape(-1,1).T
train_X=X.T
train_Y=y1
#Set layer dimensions
parameters = initializeDeepModel(layersDimensions)
#Perform forward prop
AL, caches, dropoutMat = forwardPropagationDeep(train_X, parameters, keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc="softmax")
#Compute cost
cost = computeCost(AL, train_Y, outputActivationFunc="softmax")
print("cost=",cost)
gradients = backwardPropagationDeep(AL, train_Y, caches, dropoutMat, lambd=0, keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc="softmax")
# Note the transpose of the gradients for Softmax has to be taken
L= len(parameters)//2
print(L)
gradient_check_n(parameters, gradients, train_X, train_Y, epsilon = 1e-7,outputActivationFunc="softmax")
## cost= 1.0986193170234435
## 2
## [92mYour backward propagation works perfectly fine! difference = 5.268804859613151e-07[0m
## 5.268804859613151e-07
##
##
## {'dW1': array([[ 0.00053206,  0.00038987],
##        [ 0.00093941,  0.00038077],
##        [-0.00012177, -0.0004692 ]]), 'db1': array([[ 0.00072662],
##        [-0.00210198],
##        [ 0.00046741]]), 'dW2': array([[-7.83441270e-05, -9.70179498e-04, -1.08715815e-04],
##        [-7.70175008e-04,  9.54478237e-04,  2.27690198e-04],
##        [ 8.48519135e-04,  1.57012608e-05, -1.18974383e-04]]), 'db2': array([[-8.52190476e-06],
##        [-1.69954294e-05],
##        [ 2.55173342e-05]])}
##
##
## {'dW1': array([[ 0.00053206,  0.00038987],
##        [ 0.00093941,  0.00038077],
##        [-0.00012177, -0.0004692 ]]), 'db1': array([[ 0.00072662],
##        [-0.00210198],
##        [ 0.00046741]]), 'dW2': array([[-7.83439980e-05, -9.70180603e-04, -1.08716369e-04],
##        [-7.70173925e-04,  9.54478718e-04,  2.27690089e-04],
##        [ 8.48520143e-04,  1.57018842e-05, -1.18973720e-04]]), 'db2': array([[-8.52096171e-06],
##        [-1.69964043e-05],
##        [ 2.55162558e-05]])}

## 1.2a Gradient Check – Sigmoid Activation – R

source("DLfunctions8.R")

x <- z[,1:2]
y <- z[,3]
X <- t(x)
Y <- t(y)
#Set layer dimensions
layersDimensions = c(2,5,1)
parameters = initializeDeepModel(layersDimensions)
#Perform forward prop
retvals = forwardPropagationDeep(X, parameters,keep_prob=1, hiddenActivationFunc="relu",
outputActivationFunc="sigmoid")
AL <- retvals[['AL']]
caches <- retvals[['caches']]
dropoutMat <- retvals[['dropoutMat']]
#Compute cost
cost <- computeCost(AL, Y,outputActivationFunc="sigmoid",
numClasses=layersDimensions[length(layersDimensions)])
print(cost)
## [1] 0.6931447
# Backward propagation.
gradients = backwardPropagationDeep(AL, Y, caches, dropoutMat, lambd=0, keep_prob=1, hiddenActivationFunc="relu",
outputActivationFunc="sigmoid",numClasses=layersDimensions[length(layersDimensions)])
epsilon = 1e-07
outputActivationFunc="sigmoid"
#Convert parameter list to vector
parameters_values = list_to_vector(parameters)
num_parameters = dim(parameters_values)[1]
#Initialize
J_plus = matrix(rep(0,num_parameters),
nrow=num_parameters,ncol=1)
J_minus = matrix(rep(0,num_parameters),
nrow=num_parameters,ncol=1)
nrow=num_parameters,ncol=1)

for(i in 1:num_parameters){
# Compute J_plus[i].
thetaplus = parameters_values
thetaplus[i][1] = thetaplus[i][1] + epsilon
retvals = forwardPropagationDeep(X, vector_to_list(parameters,thetaplus), keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc)

AL <- retvals[['AL']]
J_plus[i] = computeCost(AL, Y, outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc)

# Compute J_minus[i].
thetaminus = parameters_values
thetaminus[i][1] = thetaminus[i][1] - epsilon
retvals  = forwardPropagationDeep(X, vector_to_list(parameters,thetaminus), keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc)
AL <- retvals[['AL']]
J_minus[i] = computeCost(AL, Y, outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc)

}
#Compute L2Norm
difference =  numerator/denominator
if(difference > 1e-5){
cat("There is a mistake, the difference is too high",difference)
} else{
cat("The implementations works perfectly", difference)
}
## The implementations works perfectly 1.279911e-06
# This can be used to check
print("Gradients from backprop")
## [1] "Gradients from backprop"
vector_to_list2(parameters,grad)
## $dW1 ## [,1] [,2] ## [1,] -7.641588e-05 -3.427989e-07 ## [2,] -9.049683e-06 6.906304e-05 ## [3,] 3.401039e-06 -1.503914e-04 ## [4,] 1.535226e-04 -1.686402e-04 ## [5,] -6.029292e-05 -2.715648e-04 ## ##$db1
##               [,1]
## [1,]  6.930318e-06
## [2,] -3.283117e-05
## [3,]  1.310647e-05
## [4,] -3.454308e-05
## [5,] -2.331729e-08
##
## $dW2 ## [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] ## [1,] 0.0001612356 0.0001113475 0.0002435824 0.000362149 2.874116e-05 ## ##$db2
##              [,1]
## [1,] -1.16364e-05
print("Grad approx from gradient check")
## [1] "Grad approx from gradient check"
vector_to_list2(parameters,gradapprox)
## $dW1 ## [,1] [,2] ## [1,] -7.641554e-05 -3.430589e-07 ## [2,] -9.049428e-06 6.906253e-05 ## [3,] 3.401168e-06 -1.503919e-04 ## [4,] 1.535228e-04 -1.686401e-04 ## [5,] -6.029288e-05 -2.715650e-04 ## ##$db1
##               [,1]
## [1,]  6.930012e-06
## [2,] -3.283096e-05
## [3,]  1.310618e-05
## [4,] -3.454237e-05
## [5,] -2.275957e-08
##
## $dW2 ## [,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] ## [1,] 0.0001612355 0.0001113476 0.0002435829 0.0003621486 2.87409e-05 ## ##$db2
##              [,1]
## [1,] -1.16368e-05

## 1.2b Gradient Check – Softmax Activation – R

source("DLfunctions8.R")

# Setup the data
X <- Z[,1:2]
y <- Z[,3]
X <- t(X)
Y <- t(y)
layersDimensions = c(2, 3, 3)
parameters = initializeDeepModel(layersDimensions)
#Perform forward prop
retvals = forwardPropagationDeep(X, parameters,keep_prob=1, hiddenActivationFunc="relu",
outputActivationFunc="softmax")
AL <- retvals[['AL']]
caches <- retvals[['caches']]
dropoutMat <- retvals[['dropoutMat']]
#Compute cost
cost <- computeCost(AL, Y,outputActivationFunc="softmax",
numClasses=layersDimensions[length(layersDimensions)])
print(cost)
## [1] 1.098618
# Backward propagation.
gradients = backwardPropagationDeep(AL, Y, caches, dropoutMat, lambd=0, keep_prob=1, hiddenActivationFunc="relu",
outputActivationFunc="softmax",numClasses=layersDimensions[length(layersDimensions)])
# Need to take transpose of the last layer for Softmax
L=length(parameters)/2
epsilon = 1e-7,outputActivationFunc="softmax")
## The implementations works perfectly 3.903011e-07[1] "Gradients from backprop"
## $dW1 ## [,1] [,2] ## [1,] 0.0007962367 -0.0001907606 ## [2,] 0.0004444254 0.0010354412 ## [3,] 0.0003078611 0.0007591255 ## ##$db1
##               [,1]
## [1,] -0.0017305136
## [2,]  0.0005393734
## [3,]  0.0012484550
##
## $dW2 ## [,1] [,2] [,3] ## [1,] -3.515627e-04 7.487283e-04 -3.971656e-04 ## [2,] -6.381521e-05 -1.257328e-06 6.507254e-05 ## [3,] -1.719479e-04 -4.857264e-04 6.576743e-04 ## ##$db2
##               [,1]
## [1,] -5.536383e-06
## [2,] -1.824656e-05
## [3,]  2.378295e-05
##
## $dW1 ## [,1] [,2] ## [1,] 0.0007962364 -0.0001907607 ## [2,] 0.0004444256 0.0010354406 ## [3,] 0.0003078615 0.0007591250 ## ##$db1
##               [,1]
## [1,] -0.0017305135
## [2,]  0.0005393741
## [3,]  0.0012484547
##
## $dW2 ## [,1] [,2] [,3] ## [1,] -3.515632e-04 7.487277e-04 -3.971656e-04 ## [2,] -6.381451e-05 -1.257883e-06 6.507239e-05 ## [3,] -1.719469e-04 -4.857270e-04 6.576739e-04 ## ##$db2
##               [,1]
## [1,] -5.536682e-06
## [2,] -1.824652e-05
## [3,]  2.378209e-05

## 1.3a Gradient Check – Sigmoid Activation – Octave

source("DL8functions.m")
################## Circles

X=data(:,1:2);
Y=data(:,3);
#Set layer dimensions
layersDimensions = [2 5  1]; #tanh=-0.5(ok), #relu=0.1 best!
[weights biases] = initializeDeepModel(layersDimensions);
#Perform forward prop
[AL forward_caches activation_caches droputMat] = forwardPropagationDeep(X', weights, biases,keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu", outputActivationFunc="sigmoid");
#Compute cost
cost = computeCost(AL, Y',outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc,numClasses=layersDimensions(size(layersDimensions)(2)));
disp(cost);
hiddenActivationFunc="relu", outputActivationFunc="sigmoid",
numClasses=layersDimensions(size(layersDimensions)(2)));
epsilon = 1e-07;
outputActivationFunc="sigmoid";
# Convert paramter cell array to vector
parameters_values = cellArray_to_vector(weights, biases);
#Convert gradient cell array to vector
num_parameters = size(parameters_values)(1);
#Initialize
J_plus = zeros(num_parameters, 1);
J_minus = zeros(num_parameters, 1);
for i = 1:num_parameters
# Compute J_plus[i].
thetaplus = parameters_values;
thetaplus(i,1) = thetaplus(i,1) + epsilon;
[weights1 biases1] =vector_to_cellArray(weights, biases,thetaplus);
[AL forward_caches activation_caches droputMat] = forwardPropagationDeep(X', weights1, biases1, keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc);
J_plus(i) = computeCost(AL, Y', outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc);

# Compute J_minus[i].
thetaminus = parameters_values;
thetaminus(i,1) = thetaminus(i,1) - epsilon ;
[weights1 biases1] = vector_to_cellArray(weights, biases,thetaminus);
[AL forward_caches activation_caches droputMat]  = forwardPropagationDeep(X',weights1, biases1, keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu",outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc);
J_minus(i) = computeCost(AL, Y', outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc);

endfor

#Compute L2Norm
difference =  numerator/denominator;
disp(difference);
#Check difference
if difference > 1e-04
printf("There is a mistake in the implementation ");
disp(difference);
else
printf("The implementation works perfectly");
disp(difference);
endif
disp(weights1);
disp(biases1);
disp(weights2);
disp(biases2);

0.69315
1.4893e-005
The implementation works perfectly 1.4893e-005
{
[1,1] =
5.0349e-005 2.1323e-005
8.8632e-007 1.8231e-006
9.3784e-005 1.0057e-004
1.0875e-004 -1.9529e-007
5.4502e-005 3.2721e-005
[1,2] =
1.0567e-005 6.0615e-005 4.6004e-005 1.3977e-004 1.0405e-004
}
{
[1,1] =
-1.8716e-005
1.1309e-009
4.7686e-005
1.2051e-005
-1.4612e-005
[1,2] = 9.5808e-006
}
{
[1,1] =
5.0348e-005 2.1320e-005
8.8485e-007 1.8219e-006
9.3784e-005 1.0057e-004
1.0875e-004 -1.9762e-007
5.4502e-005 3.2723e-005
[1,2] =
[1,2] =
1.0565e-005 6.0614e-005 4.6007e-005 1.3977e-004 1.0405e-004
}
{
[1,1] =
-1.8713e-005
1.1102e-009
4.7687e-005
1.2048e-005
-1.4609e-005
[1,2] = 9.5790e-006
}


## 1.3b Gradient Check – Softmax Activation – Octave

source("DL8functions.m")

# Setup the data
X=data(:,1:2);
Y=data(:,3);
# Set the layer dimensions
layersDimensions = [2 3  3];
[weights biases] = initializeDeepModel(layersDimensions);
# Run forward prop
[AL forward_caches activation_caches droputMat] = forwardPropagationDeep(X', weights, biases,keep_prob=1,
hiddenActivationFunc="relu", outputActivationFunc="softmax");
# Compute cost
cost = computeCost(AL, Y',outputActivationFunc=outputActivationFunc,numClasses=layersDimensions(size(layersDimensions)(2)));
disp(cost);
# Perform backward prop
hiddenActivationFunc="relu", outputActivationFunc="softmax",
numClasses=layersDimensions(size(layersDimensions)(2)));

#Take transpose of last layer for Softmax
L=size(weights)(2);
outputActivationFunc="softmax",numClasses=layersDimensions(size(layersDimensions)(2)));

 1.0986
The implementation works perfectly  2.0021e-005
{
[1,1] =
-7.1590e-005  4.1375e-005
-1.9494e-004  -5.2014e-005
-1.4554e-004  5.1699e-005
[1,2] =
3.3129e-004  1.9806e-004  -1.5662e-005
-4.9692e-004  -3.7756e-004  -8.2318e-005
1.6562e-004  1.7950e-004  9.7980e-005
}
{
[1,1] =
-3.0856e-005
-3.3321e-004
-3.8197e-004
[1,2] =
1.2046e-006
2.9259e-007
-1.4972e-006
}
{
[1,1] =
-7.1586e-005  4.1377e-005
-1.9494e-004  -5.2013e-005
-1.4554e-004  5.1695e-005
3.3129e-004  1.9806e-004  -1.5664e-005
-4.9692e-004  -3.7756e-004  -8.2316e-005
1.6562e-004  1.7950e-004  9.7979e-005
}
{
[1,1] =
-3.0852e-005
-3.3321e-004
-3.8197e-004
[1,2] =
1.1902e-006
2.8200e-007
-1.4644e-006
}


## 2.1 Tip for tuning hyperparameters

Deep Learning Networks come with a large number of hyper parameters which require tuning. The hyper parameters are

1. $\alpha$ -learning rate
2. Number of layers
3. Number of hidden units
4. Number of iterations
5. Momentum – $\beta$ – 0.9
6. RMSProp – $\beta_{1}$ – 0.9
7. Adam – $\beta_{1}$,$\beta_{2}$ and $\epsilon$
8. learning rate decay
9. mini batch size
10. Initialization method – He, Xavier
11. Regularization

– Among the above the most critical is learning rate $\alpha$ . Rather than just trying out random values, it may help to try out values on a logarithmic scale. So we could try out values -0.01,0.1,1.0,10 etc. If we find that the cost is between 0.01 and 0.1 we could use a technique similar to binary search or bisection, so we can try 0.01, 0.05. If we need to be bigger than 0.01 and 0.05 we could try 0.25  and then keep halving the distance etc.
– The performance of Momentum and RMSProp are very good and work well with values 0.9. Even with this, it is better to try out values of 1-$\beta$ in the logarithmic range. So 1-$\beta$ could 0.001,0.01,0.1 and hence $\beta$ would be 0.999,0.99 or 0.9
– Increasing the number of hidden units or number of hidden layers need to be done gradually. I have noticed that increasing number of hidden layers heavily does not improve performance and sometimes degrades it.
– Sometimes, I tend to increase the number of iterations if I think I see a steady decrease in the cost for a certain learning rate
– It may also help to add learning rate decay if you see there is an oscillation while it decreases.
– Xavier and He initializations also help in a fast convergence and are worth trying out.

## 3.1 Final thoughts

As I come to a close in this Deep Learning Series from first principles in Python, R and Octave, I must admit that I learnt a lot in the process.

* Building a L-layer, vectorized Deep Learning Network in Python, R and Octave was extremely challenging but very rewarding
* One benefit of building vectorized versions in Python, R and Octave was that I was looking at each function that I was implementing thrice, and hence I was able to fix any bugs in any of the languages
* In addition since I built the generic L-Layer DL network with all the bells and whistles, layer by layer I further had an opportunity to look at all the functions in each successive post.
* Each language has its advantages and disadvantages. From the performance perspective I think Python is the best, followed by Octave and then R
* Interesting, I noticed that even if small bugs creep into your implementation, the DL network does learn and does generate a valid set of weights and biases, however this may not be an optimum solution. In one case of an inadvertent bug, I was not updating the weights in the final layer of the DL network. Yet, using all the other layers, the DL network was able to come with a reasonable solution (maybe like random dropout, remaining units can still learn the data!)
* Having said that, the Gradient Check method discussed and implemented in this post can be very useful in ironing out bugs.

## Conclusion

These last couple of months when I was writing the posts and the also churning up the code in Python, R and Octave were  very hectic. There have been times when I found that implementations of some function to be extremely demanding and I almost felt like giving up. Other times, I have spent quite some time on an intractable DL network which would not respond to changes in hyper-parameters. All in all, it was a great learning experience. I would suggest that you start from my first post Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave-Part 1 and work your way up. Feel free to take the code apart and try out things. That is the only way you will learn.

Hope you had as much fun as I had. Stay tuned. I will be back!!!

To see all post click Index of Posts

# Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 7

Artificial Intelligence is the new electricity. – Prof Andrew Ng

Most of human and animal learning is unsupervised learning. If intelligence was a cake, unsupervised learning would be the cake, supervised learning would be the icing on the cake, and reinforcement learning would be the cherry on the cake. We know how to make the icing and the cherry, but we don’t know how to make the cake. We need to solve the unsupervised learning problem before we can even think of getting to true AI.  – Yann LeCun, March 14, 2016 (Facebook)

# Introduction

In this post ‘Deep Learning from first principles with Python, R and Octave-Part 7’, I implement optimization methods used in Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) to speed up the convergence. Specifically I discuss and implement the following gradient descent optimization techniques

b.Learning rate decay
c. Momentum method
d. RMSProp

This post, further enhances my generic  L-Layer Deep Learning Network implementations in  vectorized Python, R and Octave to also include the Stochastic Gradient Descent optimization techniques. You can clone/download the code from Github at DeepLearning-Part7

You can view my video  presentation on Gradient Descent Optimization in Neural Networks 7

Incidentally, a good discussion of the various optimizations methods used in Stochastic Gradient Optimization techniques can be seen at Sebastian Ruder’s blog

Note: In the vectorized Python, R and Octave implementations below only a  1024 random training samples were used. This was to reduce the computation time. You are free to use the entire data set (60000 training data) for the computation.

This post is largely based of on Prof Andrew Ng’s Deep Learning Specialization.  All the above optimization techniques for Stochastic Gradient Descent are based on the technique of exponentially weighted average method. So for example if we had some time series data $\theta_{1},\theta_{2},\theta_{3}... \theta_{t}$ then we we can represent the exponentially average value at time ‘t’ as a sequence of the the previous value $v_{t-1}$ and $\theta_{t}$ as shown below
$v_{t} = \beta v_{t-1} + (1-\beta)\theta_{t}$

Here $v_{t}$ represent the average of the data set over $\frac {1}{1-\beta}$  By choosing different values of $\beta$, we can average over a larger or smaller number of the data points.
We can write the equations as follows
$v_{t} = \beta v_{t-1} + (1-\beta)\theta_{t}$
$v_{t-1} = \beta v_{t-2} + (1-\beta)\theta_{t-1}$
$v_{t-2} = \beta v_{t-3} + (1-\beta)\theta_{t-2}$
and
$v_{t-k} = \beta v_{t-(k+1))} + (1-\beta)\theta_{t-k}$
By substitution we have
$v_{t} = (1-\beta)\theta_{t} + \beta v_{t-1}$
$v_{t} = (1-\beta)\theta_{t} + \beta ((1-\beta)\theta_{t-1}) + \beta v_{t-2}$
$v_{t} = (1-\beta)\theta_{t} + \beta ((1-\beta)\theta_{t-1}) + \beta ((1-\beta)\theta_{t-2}+ \beta v_{t-3} )$

Hence it can be seen that the $v_{t}$ is the weighted sum over the previous values $\theta_{k}$, which is an exponentially decaying function.

Checkout my book ‘Deep Learning from first principles: Second Edition – In vectorized Python, R and Octave’. My book starts with the implementation of a simple 2-layer Neural Network and works its way to a generic L-Layer Deep Learning Network, with all the bells and whistles. The derivations have been discussed in detail. The code has been extensively commented and included in its entirety in the Appendix sections. My book is available on Amazon as paperback ($18.99) and in kindle version($9.99/Rs449).

You may also like my companion book “Practical Machine Learning with R and Python- Machine Learning in stereo” available in Amazon in paperback($9.99) and Kindle($6.99) versions. This book is ideal for a quick reference of the various ML functions and associated measurements in both R and Python which are essential to delve deep into Deep Learning.

## 1.1a. Stochastic Gradient Descent (Vanilla) – Python

import numpy as np
import matplotlib
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import sklearn.linear_model
import pandas as pd
import sklearn
import sklearn.datasets

lbls=[]
pxls=[]
for i in range(60000):
l,p=training[i]
lbls.append(l)
pxls.append(p)
labels= np.array(lbls)
pixels=np.array(pxls)
y=labels.reshape(-1,1)
X=pixels.reshape(pixels.shape[0],-1)
X1=X.T
Y1=y.T

# Create  a list of 1024 random numbers.
permutation = list(np.random.permutation(2**10))
# Subset 16384 from the data
X2 = X1[:, permutation]
Y2 = Y1[:, permutation].reshape((1,2**10))
# Set the layer dimensions
layersDimensions=[784, 15,9,10]
# Perform SGD with regular gradient descent
parameters = L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X2, Y2, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",learningRate = 0.01 ,
optimizer="gd",
mini_batch_size =512, num_epochs = 1000, print_cost = True,figure="fig1.png")


## 1.1b. Stochastic Gradient Descent (Vanilla) – R

source("mnist.R")
source("DLfunctions7.R")
x <- t(train$x) X <- x[,1:60000] y <-train$y
y1 <- y[1:60000]
y2 <- as.matrix(y1)
Y=t(y2)

# Subset 1024 random samples from MNIST
permutation = c(sample(2^10))
# Randomly shuffle the training data
X1 = X[, permutation]
y1 = Y[1, permutation]
y2 <- as.matrix(y1)
Y1=t(y2)
# Set layer dimensions
layersDimensions=c(784, 15,9, 10)
# Perform SGD with regular gradient descent
retvalsSGD= L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X1, Y1, layersDimensions,
hiddenActivationFunc='tanh',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",
learningRate = 0.05,
optimizer="gd",
mini_batch_size = 512,
num_epochs = 5000,
print_cost = True)
#Plot the cost vs iterations
iterations <- seq(0,5000,1000)
costs=retvalsSGD$costs df=data.frame(iterations,costs) ggplot(df,aes(x=iterations,y=costs)) + geom_point() + geom_line(color="blue") + ggtitle("Costs vs no of epochs") + xlab("No of epochss") + ylab("Cost") ## 1.1c. Stochastic Gradient Descent (Vanilla) – Octave source("DL7functions.m") #Load and read MNIST load('./mnist/mnist.txt.gz'); #Create a random permutatation from 1024 permutation = randperm(1024); disp(length(permutation)); # Use this 1024 as the batch X=trainX(permutation,:); Y=trainY(permutation,:); # Set layer dimensions layersDimensions=[784, 15, 9, 10]; # Perform SGD with regular gradient descent [weights biases costs]=L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X', Y', layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu', outputActivationFunc="softmax", learningRate = 0.005, lrDecay=true, decayRate=1, lambd=0, keep_prob=1, optimizer="gd", beta=0.9, beta1=0.9, beta2=0.999, epsilon=10^-8, mini_batch_size = 512, num_epochs = 5000); plotCostVsEpochs(5000,costs);  ## 2.1. Stochastic Gradient Descent with Learning rate decay Since in Stochastic Gradient Descent,with each epoch, we use slight different samples, the gradient descent algorithm, oscillates across the ravines and wanders around the minima, when a fixed learning rate is used. In this technique of ‘learning rate decay’ the learning rate is slowly decreased with the number of epochs and becomes smaller and smaller, so that gradient descent can take smaller steps towards the minima. There are several techniques employed in learning rate decay a) Exponential decay: $\alpha = decayRate^{epochNum} *\alpha_{0}$ b) 1/t decay : $\alpha = \frac{\alpha_{0}}{1 + decayRate*epochNum}$ c) $\alpha = \frac {decayRate}{\sqrt(epochNum)}*\alpha_{0}$ In my implementation I have used the ‘exponential decay’. The code snippet for Python is shown below if lrDecay == True: learningRate = np.power(decayRate,(num_epochs/1000)) * learningRate  ## 2.1a. Stochastic Gradient Descent with Learning rate decay – Python import numpy as np import matplotlib import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import sklearn.linear_model import pandas as pd import sklearn import sklearn.datasets exec(open("DLfunctions7.py").read()) exec(open("load_mnist.py").read()) # Read the MNIST data training=list(read(dataset='training',path=".\\mnist")) test=list(read(dataset='testing',path=".\\mnist")) lbls=[] pxls=[] for i in range(60000): l,p=training[i] lbls.append(l) pxls.append(p) labels= np.array(lbls) pixels=np.array(pxls) y=labels.reshape(-1,1) X=pixels.reshape(pixels.shape[0],-1) X1=X.T Y1=y.T # Create a list of random numbers of 1024 permutation = list(np.random.permutation(2**10)) # Subset 16384 from the data X2 = X1[:, permutation] Y2 = Y1[:, permutation].reshape((1,2**10)) # Set layer dimensions layersDimensions=[784, 15,9,10] # Perform SGD with learning rate decay parameters = L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X2, Y2, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu', outputActivationFunc="softmax", learningRate = 0.01 , lrDecay=True, decayRate=0.9999, optimizer="gd", mini_batch_size =512, num_epochs = 1000, print_cost = True,figure="fig2.png") ## 2.1b. Stochastic Gradient Descent with Learning rate decay – R source("mnist.R") source("DLfunctions7.R") # Read and load MNIST load_mnist() x <- t(train$x)
X <- x[,1:60000]
y <-train$y y1 <- y[1:60000] y2 <- as.matrix(y1) Y=t(y2) # Subset 1024 random samples from MNIST permutation = c(sample(2^10)) # Randomly shuffle the training data X1 = X[, permutation] y1 = Y[1, permutation] y2 <- as.matrix(y1) Y1=t(y2) # Set layer dimensions layersDimensions=c(784, 15,9, 10) # Perform SGD with Learning rate decay retvalsSGD= L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X1, Y1, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='tanh', outputActivationFunc="softmax", learningRate = 0.05, lrDecay=TRUE, decayRate=0.9999, optimizer="gd", mini_batch_size = 512, num_epochs = 5000, print_cost = True) #Plot the cost vs iterations iterations <- seq(0,5000,1000) costs=retvalsSGD$costs
df=data.frame(iterations,costs)
ggplot(df,aes(x=iterations,y=costs)) + geom_point() + geom_line(color="blue") +
ggtitle("Costs vs number of epochs") + xlab("No of epochs") + ylab("Cost")

## 2.1c. Stochastic Gradient Descent with Learning rate decay – Octave

source("DL7functions.m")
#Create a random permutatation from 1024
permutation = randperm(1024);
disp(length(permutation));

# Use this 1024 as the batch
X=trainX(permutation,:);
Y=trainY(permutation,:);

# Set layer dimensions
layersDimensions=[784, 15, 9, 10];
# Perform SGD with regular Learning rate decay
[weights biases costs]=L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X', Y', layersDimensions,
hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",
learningRate = 0.01,
lrDecay=true,
decayRate=0.999,
lambd=0,
keep_prob=1,
optimizer="gd",
beta=0.9,
beta1=0.9,
beta2=0.999,
epsilon=10^-8,
mini_batch_size = 512,
num_epochs = 5000);
plotCostVsEpochs(5000,costs)


## 3.1. Stochastic Gradient Descent with Momentum

Stochastic Gradient Descent with Momentum uses the exponentially weighted average method discusses above and more generally moves faster into the ravine than across it. The equations are
$v_{dW}^l = \beta v_{dW}^l + (1-\beta)dW^{l}$
$v_{db}^l = \beta v_{db}^l + (1-\beta)db^{l}$
$W^{l} = W^{l} - \alpha v_{dW}^l$
$b^{l} = b^{l} - \alpha v_{db}^l$ where
$v_{dW}$ and $v_{db}$ are the momentum terms which are exponentially weighted with the corresponding gradients ‘dW’ and ‘db’ at the corresponding layer ‘l’ The code snippet for Stochastic Gradient Descent with momentum in R is shown below

# Perform Gradient Descent with momentum
# Input : Weights and biases
#       : beta
#       : learning rate
#       : outputActivationFunc - Activation function at hidden layer sigmoid/softmax
#output : Updated weights after 1 iteration

L = length(parameters)/2 # number of layers in the neural network
# Update rule for each parameter. Use a for loop.
for(l in 1:(L-1)){
# Compute velocities
# v['dWk'] = beta *v['dWk'] + (1-beta)*dWk
v[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]] = beta*v[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]] +
v[[paste("db",l, sep="")]] = beta*v[[paste("db",l, sep="")]] +

parameters[[paste("W",l,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("W",l,sep="")]] -
learningRate* v[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]]
parameters[[paste("b",l,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("b",l,sep="")]] -
learningRate* v[[paste("db",l, sep="")]]
}
# Compute for the Lth layer
if(outputActivationFunc=="sigmoid"){
v[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] = beta*v[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] +
v[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] = beta*v[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] +

parameters[[paste("W",L,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("W",L,sep="")]] -
learningRate* v[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]]
parameters[[paste("b",L,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("b",L,sep="")]] -
learningRate* v[[paste("db",l, sep="")]]

}else if (outputActivationFunc=="softmax"){
v[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] = beta*v[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] +
v[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] = beta*v[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] +
parameters[[paste("W",L,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("W",L,sep="")]] -
parameters[[paste("b",L,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("b",L,sep="")]] -
}
return(parameters)
}

## 3.1a. Stochastic Gradient Descent with Momentum- Python

import numpy as np
import matplotlib
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import sklearn.linear_model
import pandas as pd
import sklearn
import sklearn.datasets
lbls=[]
pxls=[]
for i in range(60000):
l,p=training[i]
lbls.append(l)
pxls.append(p)
labels= np.array(lbls)
pixels=np.array(pxls)
y=labels.reshape(-1,1)
X=pixels.reshape(pixels.shape[0],-1)
X1=X.T
Y1=y.T

# Create  a list of random numbers of 1024
permutation = list(np.random.permutation(2**10))
# Subset 16384 from the data
X2 = X1[:, permutation]
Y2 = Y1[:, permutation].reshape((1,2**10))
layersDimensions=[784, 15,9,10]
# Perform SGD with momentum
parameters = L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X2, Y2, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",learningRate = 0.01 ,
optimizer="momentum", beta=0.9,
mini_batch_size =512, num_epochs = 1000, print_cost = True,figure="fig3.png")

## 3.1b. Stochastic Gradient Descent with Momentum- R

source("mnist.R")
source("DLfunctions7.R")
x <- t(train$x) X <- x[,1:60000] y <-train$y
y1 <- y[1:60000]
y2 <- as.matrix(y1)
Y=t(y2)

# Subset 1024 random samples from MNIST
permutation = c(sample(2^10))
# Randomly shuffle the training data
X1 = X[, permutation]
y1 = Y[1, permutation]
y2 <- as.matrix(y1)
Y1=t(y2)
layersDimensions=c(784, 15,9, 10)
# Perform SGD with momentum
retvalsSGD= L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X1, Y1, layersDimensions,
hiddenActivationFunc='tanh',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",
learningRate = 0.05,
optimizer="momentum",
beta=0.9,
mini_batch_size = 512,
num_epochs = 5000,
print_cost = True)


#Plot the cost vs iterations
iterations <- seq(0,5000,1000)
costs=retvalsSGD$costs df=data.frame(iterations,costs) ggplot(df,aes(x=iterations,y=costs)) + geom_point() + geom_line(color="blue") + ggtitle("Costs vs number of epochs") + xlab("No of epochs") + ylab("Cost") ## 3.1c. Stochastic Gradient Descent with Momentum- Octave source("DL7functions.m") #Load and read MNIST load('./mnist/mnist.txt.gz'); #Create a random permutatation from 60K permutation = randperm(1024); disp(length(permutation)); # Use this 1024 as the batch X=trainX(permutation,:); Y=trainY(permutation,:); # Set layer dimensions layersDimensions=[784, 15, 9, 10]; # Perform SGD with Momentum [weights biases costs]=L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X', Y', layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu', outputActivationFunc="softmax", learningRate = 0.01, lrDecay=false, decayRate=1, lambd=0, keep_prob=1, optimizer="momentum", beta=0.9, beta1=0.9, beta2=0.999, epsilon=10^-8, mini_batch_size = 512, num_epochs = 5000); plotCostVsEpochs(5000,costs)  ## 4.1. Stochastic Gradient Descent with RMSProp Stochastic Gradient Descent with RMSProp tries to move faster towards the minima while dampening the oscillations across the ravine. The equations are $s_{dW}^l = \beta_{1} s_{dW}^l + (1-\beta_{1})(dW^{l})^{2}$ $s_{db}^l = \beta_{1} s_{db}^l + (1-\beta_{1})(db^{l})^2$ $W^{l} = W^{l} - \frac {\alpha s_{dW}^l}{\sqrt (s_{dW}^l + \epsilon) }$ $b^{l} = b^{l} - \frac {\alpha s_{db}^l}{\sqrt (s_{db}^l + \epsilon) }$ where $s_{dW}$ and $s_{db}$ are the RMSProp terms which are exponentially weighted with the corresponding gradients ‘dW’ and ‘db’ at the corresponding layer ‘l’ The code snippet in Octave is shown below # Update parameters with RMSProp # Input : parameters # : gradients # : s # : beta # : learningRate # : #output : Updated parameters RMSProp function [weights biases] = gradientDescentWithRMSProp(weights, biases,gradsDW,gradsDB, sdW, sdB, beta1, epsilon, learningRate,outputActivationFunc="sigmoid") L = size(weights)(2); # number of layers in the neural network # Update rule for each parameter. for l=1:(L-1) sdW{l} = beta1*sdW{l} + (1 -beta1) * gradsDW{l} .* gradsDW{l}; sdB{l} = beta1*sdB{l} + (1 -beta1) * gradsDB{l} .* gradsDB{l}; weights{l} = weights{l} - learningRate* gradsDW{l} ./ sqrt(sdW{l} + epsilon); biases{l} = biases{l} - learningRate* gradsDB{l} ./ sqrt(sdB{l} + epsilon); endfor if (strcmp(outputActivationFunc,"sigmoid")) sdW{L} = beta1*sdW{L} + (1 -beta1) * gradsDW{L} .* gradsDW{L}; sdB{L} = beta1*sdB{L} + (1 -beta1) * gradsDB{L} .* gradsDB{L}; weights{L} = weights{L} -learningRate* gradsDW{L} ./ sqrt(sdW{L} +epsilon); biases{L} = biases{L} -learningRate* gradsDB{L} ./ sqrt(sdB{L} + epsilon); elseif (strcmp(outputActivationFunc,"softmax")) sdW{L} = beta1*sdW{L} + (1 -beta1) * gradsDW{L}' .* gradsDW{L}'; sdB{L} = beta1*sdB{L} + (1 -beta1) * gradsDB{L}' .* gradsDB{L}'; weights{L} = weights{L} -learningRate* gradsDW{L}' ./ sqrt(sdW{L} +epsilon); biases{L} = biases{L} -learningRate* gradsDB{L}' ./ sqrt(sdB{L} + epsilon); endif end  ## 4.1a. Stochastic Gradient Descent with RMSProp – Python import numpy as np import matplotlib import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import sklearn.linear_model import pandas as pd import sklearn import sklearn.datasets exec(open("DLfunctions7.py").read()) exec(open("load_mnist.py").read()) # Read and load MNIST training=list(read(dataset='training',path=".\\mnist")) test=list(read(dataset='testing',path=".\\mnist")) lbls=[] pxls=[] for i in range(60000): l,p=training[i] lbls.append(l) pxls.append(p) labels= np.array(lbls) pixels=np.array(pxls) y=labels.reshape(-1,1) X=pixels.reshape(pixels.shape[0],-1) X1=X.T Y1=y.T print("X1=",X1.shape) print("y1=",Y1.shape) # Create a list of random numbers of 1024 permutation = list(np.random.permutation(2**10)) # Subset 16384 from the data X2 = X1[:, permutation] Y2 = Y1[:, permutation].reshape((1,2**10)) layersDimensions=[784, 15,9,10] # Use SGD with RMSProp parameters = L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X2, Y2, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu', outputActivationFunc="softmax",learningRate = 0.01 , optimizer="rmsprop", beta1=0.7, epsilon=1e-8, mini_batch_size =512, num_epochs = 1000, print_cost = True,figure="fig4.png") ## 4.1b. Stochastic Gradient Descent with RMSProp – R source("mnist.R") source("DLfunctions7.R") load_mnist() x <- t(train$x)
X <- x[,1:60000]
y <-train$y y1 <- y[1:60000] y2 <- as.matrix(y1) Y=t(y2) # Subset 1024 random samples from MNIST permutation = c(sample(2^10)) # Randomly shuffle the training data X1 = X[, permutation] y1 = Y[1, permutation] y2 <- as.matrix(y1) Y1=t(y2) layersDimensions=c(784, 15,9, 10) #Perform SGD with RMSProp retvalsSGD= L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X1, Y1, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='tanh', outputActivationFunc="softmax", learningRate = 0.001, optimizer="rmsprop", beta1=0.9, epsilon=10^-8, mini_batch_size = 512, num_epochs = 5000 , print_cost = True) #Plot the cost vs iterations iterations <- seq(0,5000,1000) costs=retvalsSGD$costs
df=data.frame(iterations,costs)
ggplot(df,aes(x=iterations,y=costs)) + geom_point() + geom_line(color="blue") +
ggtitle("Costs vs number of epochs") + xlab("No of epochs") + ylab("Cost")


## 4.1c. Stochastic Gradient Descent with RMSProp – Octave

source("DL7functions.m")
#Create a random permutatation from 1024
permutation = randperm(1024);

# Use this 1024 as the batch
X=trainX(permutation,:);
Y=trainY(permutation,:);

# Set layer dimensions
layersDimensions=[784, 15, 9, 10];
#Perform SGD with RMSProp
[weights biases costs]=L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X', Y', layersDimensions,
hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",
learningRate = 0.005,
lrDecay=false,
decayRate=1,
lambd=0,
keep_prob=1,
optimizer="rmsprop",
beta=0.9,
beta1=0.9,
beta2=0.999,
epsilon=1,
mini_batch_size = 512,
num_epochs = 5000);
plotCostVsEpochs(5000,costs)


Adaptive Moment Estimate is a combination of the momentum (1st moment) and RMSProp(2nd moment). The equations for Adam are below
$v_{dW}^l = \beta_{1} v_{dW}^l + (1-\beta_{1})dW^{l}$
$v_{db}^l = \beta_{1} v_{db}^l + (1-\beta_{1})db^{l}$
The bias corrections for the 1st moment
$vCorrected_{dW}^l= \frac {v_{dW}^l}{1 - \beta_{1}^{t}}$
$vCorrected_{db}^l= \frac {v_{db}^l}{1 - \beta_{1}^{t}}$

Similarly the moving average for the 2nd moment- RMSProp
$s_{dW}^l = \beta_{2} s_{dW}^l + (1-\beta_{2})(dW^{l})^2$
$s_{db}^l = \beta_{2} s_{db}^l + (1-\beta_{2})(db^{l})^2$
The bias corrections for the 2nd moment
$sCorrected_{dW}^l= \frac {s_{dW}^l}{1 - \beta_{2}^{t}}$
$sCorrected_{db}^l= \frac {s_{db}^l}{1 - \beta_{2}^{t}}$

$W^{l} = W^{l} - \frac {\alpha vCorrected_{dW}^l}{\sqrt (s_{dW}^l + \epsilon) }$
$b^{l} = b^{l} - \frac {\alpha vCorrected_{db}^l}{\sqrt (s_{db}^l + \epsilon) }$
The code snippet of Adam in R is included below

# Perform Gradient Descent with Adam
# Input : Weights and biases
#       : beta1
#       : epsilon
#       : learning rate
#       : outputActivationFunc - Activation function at hidden layer sigmoid/softmax
#output : Updated weights after 1 iteration
beta1=0.9, beta2=0.999, epsilon=10^-8, learningRate=0.1,outputActivationFunc="sigmoid"){

L = length(parameters)/2 # number of layers in the neural network
v_corrected <- list()
s_corrected <- list()
# Update rule for each parameter. Use a for loop.
for(l in 1:(L-1)){
# v['dWk'] = beta *v['dWk'] + (1-beta)*dWk
v[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]] = beta1*v[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]] +
v[[paste("db",l, sep="")]] = beta1*v[[paste("db",l, sep="")]] +

# Compute bias-corrected first moment estimate.
v_corrected[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]] = v[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]]/(1-beta1^t)
v_corrected[[paste("db",l, sep="")]] = v[[paste("db",l, sep="")]]/(1-beta1^t)

# Element wise multiply of gradients
s[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]] = beta2*s[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]] +
s[[paste("db",l, sep="")]] = beta2*s[[paste("db",l, sep="")]] +

# Compute bias-corrected second moment estimate.
s_corrected[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]] = s[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]]/(1-beta2^t)
s_corrected[[paste("db",l, sep="")]] = s[[paste("db",l, sep="")]]/(1-beta2^t)

# Update parameters.
d1=sqrt(s_corrected[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]]+epsilon)
d2=sqrt(s_corrected[[paste("db",l, sep="")]]+epsilon)

parameters[[paste("W",l,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("W",l,sep="")]] -
learningRate * v_corrected[[paste("dW",l, sep="")]]/d1
parameters[[paste("b",l,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("b",l,sep="")]] -
learningRate*v_corrected[[paste("db",l, sep="")]]/d2
}
# Compute for the Lth layer
if(outputActivationFunc=="sigmoid"){
v[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] = beta1*v[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] +
v[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] = beta1*v[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] +

# Compute bias-corrected first moment estimate.
v_corrected[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] = v[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]]/(1-beta1^t)
v_corrected[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] = v[[paste("db",L, sep="")]]/(1-beta1^t)

# Element wise multiply of gradients
s[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] = beta2*s[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] +
s[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] = beta2*s[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] +

# Compute bias-corrected second moment estimate.
s_corrected[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] = s[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]]/(1-beta2^t)
s_corrected[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] = s[[paste("db",L, sep="")]]/(1-beta2^t)

# Update parameters.
d1=sqrt(s_corrected[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]]+epsilon)
d2=sqrt(s_corrected[[paste("db",L, sep="")]]+epsilon)

parameters[[paste("W",L,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("W",L,sep="")]] -
learningRate * v_corrected[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]]/d1
parameters[[paste("b",L,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("b",L,sep="")]] -
learningRate*v_corrected[[paste("db",L, sep="")]]/d2

}else if (outputActivationFunc=="softmax"){
v[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] = beta1*v[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] +
v[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] = beta1*v[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] +

# Compute bias-corrected first moment estimate.
v_corrected[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] = v[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]]/(1-beta1^t)
v_corrected[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] = v[[paste("db",L, sep="")]]/(1-beta1^t)

# Element wise multiply of gradients
s[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] = beta2*s[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] +
s[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] = beta2*s[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] +

# Compute bias-corrected second moment estimate.
s_corrected[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]] = s[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]]/(1-beta2^t)
s_corrected[[paste("db",L, sep="")]] = s[[paste("db",L, sep="")]]/(1-beta2^t)

# Update parameters.
d1=sqrt(s_corrected[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]]+epsilon)
d2=sqrt(s_corrected[[paste("db",L, sep="")]]+epsilon)

parameters[[paste("W",L,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("W",L,sep="")]] -
learningRate * v_corrected[[paste("dW",L, sep="")]]/d1
parameters[[paste("b",L,sep="")]] = parameters[[paste("b",L,sep="")]] -
learningRate*v_corrected[[paste("db",L, sep="")]]/d2
}
return(parameters)
}


import numpy as np
import matplotlib
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import sklearn.linear_model
import pandas as pd
import sklearn
import sklearn.datasets
lbls=[]
pxls=[]
print(len(training))
#for i in range(len(training)):
for i in range(60000):
l,p=training[i]
lbls.append(l)
pxls.append(p)
labels= np.array(lbls)
pixels=np.array(pxls)
y=labels.reshape(-1,1)
X=pixels.reshape(pixels.shape[0],-1)
X1=X.T
Y1=y.T

# Create  a list of random numbers of 1024
permutation = list(np.random.permutation(2**10))
# Subset 16384 from the data
X2 = X1[:, permutation]
Y2 = Y1[:, permutation].reshape((1,2**10))
layersDimensions=[784, 15,9,10]
parameters = L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X2, Y2, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",learningRate = 0.01 ,
optimizer="adam", beta1=0.9, beta2=0.9, epsilon = 1e-8,
mini_batch_size =512, num_epochs = 1000, print_cost = True, figure="fig5.png")

source("mnist.R")
source("DLfunctions7.R")
x <- t(train$x) X <- x[,1:60000] y <-train$y
y1 <- y[1:60000]
y2 <- as.matrix(y1)
Y=t(y2)

# Subset 1024 random samples from MNIST
permutation = c(sample(2^10))
# Randomly shuffle the training data
X1 = X[, permutation]
y1 = Y[1, permutation]
y2 <- as.matrix(y1)
Y1=t(y2)
layersDimensions=c(784, 15,9, 10)
retvalsSGD= L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X1, Y1, layersDimensions,
hiddenActivationFunc='tanh',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",
learningRate = 0.005,
beta1=0.7,
beta2=0.9,
epsilon=10^-8,
mini_batch_size = 512,
num_epochs = 5000 ,
print_cost = True)
#Plot the cost vs iterations
iterations <- seq(0,5000,1000)
costs=retvalsSGD$costs df=data.frame(iterations,costs) ggplot(df,aes(x=iterations,y=costs)) + geom_point() + geom_line(color="blue") + ggtitle("Costs vs number of epochs") + xlab("No of epochs") + ylab("Cost") ## 5.1c. Stochastic Gradient Descent with Adam – Octave source("DL7functions.m") load('./mnist/mnist.txt.gz'); #Create a random permutatation from 1024 permutation = randperm(1024); disp(length(permutation)); # Use this 1024 as the batch X=trainX(permutation,:); Y=trainY(permutation,:); # Set layer dimensions layersDimensions=[784, 15, 9, 10]; # Note the high value for epsilon. #Otherwise GD with Adam does not seem to converge # Perform SGD with Adam [weights biases costs]=L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X', Y', layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu', outputActivationFunc="softmax", learningRate = 0.1, lrDecay=false, decayRate=1, lambd=0, keep_prob=1, optimizer="adam", beta=0.9, beta1=0.9, beta2=0.9, epsilon=100, mini_batch_size = 512, num_epochs = 5000); plotCostVsEpochs(5000,costs)  Conclusion: In this post I discuss and implement several Stochastic Gradient Descent optimization methods. The implementation of these methods enhance my already existing generic L-Layer Deep Learning Network implementation in vectorized Python, R and Octave, which I had discussed in the previous post in this series on Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave. Check it out, if you haven’t already. As already mentioned the code for this post can be cloned/forked from Github at DeepLearning-Part7 Watch this space! I’ll be back! To see all post click Index of posts # Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 5 ## Introduction a. A robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm. b. A robot must obey orders given it by human beings except where such orders would conflict with the First Law. c. A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.  Isaac Asimov's Three Laws of Robotics  Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.  Arthur C Clarke.  In this 5th part on Deep Learning from first Principles in Python, R and Octave, I solve the MNIST data set of handwritten digits (shown below), from the basics. To do this, I construct a L-Layer, vectorized Deep Learning implementation in Python, R and Octave from scratch and classify the MNIST data set. The MNIST training data set contains 60000 handwritten digits from 0-9, and a test set of 10000 digits. MNIST, is a popular dataset for running Deep Learning tests, and has been rightfully termed as the ‘drosophila’ of Deep Learning, by none other than the venerable Prof Geoffrey Hinton. The ‘Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave’ series, so far included Part 1 , where I had implemented logistic regression as a simple Neural Network. Part 2 implemented the most elementary neural network with 1 hidden layer, but with any number of activation units in that layer, and a sigmoid activation at the output layer. This post, ‘Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 5’ largely builds upon Part3. in which I implemented a multi-layer Deep Learning network, with an arbitrary number of hidden layers and activation units per hidden layer and with the output layer was based on the sigmoid unit, for binary classification. In Part 4, I derive the Jacobian of a Softmax, the Cross entropy loss and the gradient equations for a multi-class Softmax classifier. I also implement a simple Neural Network using Softmax classifications in Python, R and Octave. In this post I combine Part 3 and Part 4 to to build a L-layer Deep Learning network, with arbitrary number of hidden layers and hidden units, which can do both binary (sigmoid) and multi-class (softmax) classification. Note: A detailed discussion of the derivation for multi-class clasification can be seen in my video presentation Neural Networks 5 The generic, vectorized L-Layer Deep Learning Network implementations in Python, R and Octave can be cloned/downloaded from GitHub at DeepLearning-Part5. This implementation allows for arbitrary number of hidden layers and hidden layer units. The activation function at the hidden layers can be one of sigmoid, relu and tanh (will be adding leaky relu soon). The output activation can be used for binary classification with the ‘sigmoid’, or multi-class classification with ‘softmax’. Feel free to download and play around with the code! I thought the exercise of combining the two parts(Part 3, & Part 4) would be a breeze. But it was anything but. Incorporating a Softmax classifier into the generic L-Layer Deep Learning model was a challenge. Moreover I found that I could not use the gradient descent on 60,000 training samples as my laptop ran out of memory. So I had to implement Stochastic Gradient Descent (SGD) for Python, R and Octave. In addition, I had to also implement the numerically stable version of Softmax, as the softmax and its derivative would result in NaNs. ### Numerically stable Softmax The Softmax function $S_{j} =\frac{e^{Z_{j}}}{\sum_{i}^{k}e^{Z_{i}}}$ can be numerically unstable because of the division of large exponentials. To handle this problem we have to implement stable Softmax function as below $S_{j} =\frac{e^{Z_{j}}}{\sum_{i}^{k}e^{Z_{i}}}$ $S_{j} =\frac{e^{Z_{j}}}{\sum_{i}^{k}e^{Z_{i}}} = \frac{Ce^{Z_{j}}}{C\sum_{i}^{k}e^{Z_{i}}} = \frac{e^{Z_{j}+log(C)}}{\sum_{i}^{k}e^{Z_{i}+log(C)}}$ Therefore $S_{j} = \frac{e^{Z_{j}+ D}}{\sum_{i}^{k}e^{Z_{i}+ D}}$ Here ‘D’ can be anything. A common choice is $D=-max(Z_{1},Z_{2},... Z_{k})$ Here is the stable Softmax implementation in Python # A numerically stable Softmax implementation def stableSoftmax(Z): #Compute the softmax of vector x in a numerically stable way. shiftZ = Z.T - np.max(Z.T,axis=1).reshape(-1,1) exp_scores = np.exp(shiftZ) # normalize them for each example A = exp_scores / np.sum(exp_scores, axis=1, keepdims=True) cache=Z return A,cache  While trying to create a L-Layer generic Deep Learning network in the 3 languages, I found it useful to ensure that the model executed correctly on smaller datasets. You can run into numerous problems while setting up the matrices, which becomes extremely difficult to debug. So in this post, I run the model on 2 smaller data for sets used in my earlier posts(Part 3 & Part4) , in each of the languages, before running the generic model on MNIST. Here is a fair warning. if you think you can dive directly into Deep Learning, with just some basic knowledge of Machine Learning, you are bound to run into serious issues. Moreover, your knowledge will be incomplete. It is essential that you have a good grasp of Machine and Statistical Learning, the different algorithms, the measures and metrics for selecting the models etc.It would help to be conversant with all the ML models, ML concepts, validation techniques, classification measures etc. Check out the internet/books for background. Checkout my book ‘Deep Learning from first principles: Second Edition – In vectorized Python, R and Octave’. My book starts with the implementation of a simple 2-layer Neural Network and works its way to a generic L-Layer Deep Learning Network, with all the bells and whistles. The derivations have been discussed in detail. The code has been extensively commented and included in its entirety in the Appendix sections. My book is available on Amazon as paperback ($18.99) and in kindle version($9.99/Rs449). You may also like my companion book “Practical Machine Learning with R and Python:Second Edition- Machine Learning in stereo” available in Amazon in paperback($10.99) and Kindle($7.99/Rs449) versions. This book is ideal for a quick reference of the various ML functions and associated measurements in both R and Python which are essential to delve deep into Deep Learning. ### 1. Random dataset with Sigmoid activation – Python This random data with 9 clusters, was used in my post Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 3 , and was used to test the complete L-layer Deep Learning network with Sigmoid activation. import numpy as np import matplotlib import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import pandas as pd from sklearn.datasets import make_classification, make_blobs exec(open("DLfunctions51.py").read()) # Cannot import in Rmd. # Create a random data set with 9 centeres X1, Y1 = make_blobs(n_samples = 400, n_features = 2, centers = 9,cluster_std = 1.3, random_state =4) #Create 2 classes Y1=Y1.reshape(400,1) Y1 = Y1 % 2 X2=X1.T Y2=Y1.T # Set the dimensions of L -layer DL network layersDimensions = [2, 9, 9,1] # 4-layer model # Execute DL network with hidden activation=relu and sigmoid output function parameters = L_Layer_DeepModel(X2, Y2, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu', outputActivationFunc="sigmoid",learningRate = 0.3,num_iterations = 2500, print_cost = True) ### 2. Spiral dataset with Softmax activation – Python The Spiral data was used in my post Deep Learning from first principles in Python, R and Octave – Part 4 and was used to test the complete L-layer Deep Learning network with multi-class Softmax activation at the output layer import numpy as np import matplotlib import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import pandas as pd from sklearn.datasets import make_classification, make_blobs exec(open("DLfunctions51.py").read()) # Create an input data set - Taken from CS231n Convolutional Neural networks # http://cs231n.github.io/neural-networks-case-study/ N = 100 # number of points per class D = 2 # dimensionality K = 3 # number of classes X = np.zeros((N*K,D)) # data matrix (each row = single example) y = np.zeros(N*K, dtype='uint8') # class labels for j in range(K): ix = range(N*j,N*(j+1)) r = np.linspace(0.0,1,N) # radius t = np.linspace(j*4,(j+1)*4,N) + np.random.randn(N)*0.2 # theta X[ix] = np.c_[r*np.sin(t), r*np.cos(t)] y[ix] = j X1=X.T Y1=y.reshape(-1,1).T numHidden=100 # No of hidden units in hidden layer numFeats= 2 # dimensionality numOutput = 3 # number of classes # Set the dimensions of the layers layersDimensions=[numFeats,numHidden,numOutput] parameters = L_Layer_DeepModel(X1, Y1, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu', outputActivationFunc="softmax",learningRate = 0.6,num_iterations = 9000, print_cost = True) ## Cost after iteration 0: 1.098759 ## Cost after iteration 1000: 0.112666 ## Cost after iteration 2000: 0.044351 ## Cost after iteration 3000: 0.027491 ## Cost after iteration 4000: 0.021898 ## Cost after iteration 5000: 0.019181 ## Cost after iteration 6000: 0.017832 ## Cost after iteration 7000: 0.017452 ## Cost after iteration 8000: 0.017161 ### 3. MNIST dataset with Softmax activation – Python In the code below, I execute Stochastic Gradient Descent on the MNIST training data of 60000. I used a mini-batch size of 1000. Python takes about 40 minutes to crunch the data. In addition I also compute the Confusion Matrix and other metrics like Accuracy, Precision and Recall for the MNIST data set. I get an accuracy of 0.93 on the MNIST test set. This accuracy can be improved by choosing more hidden layers or more hidden units and possibly also tweaking the learning rate and the number of epochs. import numpy as np import matplotlib import matplotlib.pyplot as plt import pandas as pd import math from sklearn.datasets import make_classification, make_blobs from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, precision_score, recall_score, f1_score exec(open("DLfunctions51.py").read()) exec(open("load_mnist.py").read()) # Read the MNIST training and test sets training=list(read(dataset='training',path=".\\mnist")) test=list(read(dataset='testing',path=".\\mnist")) # Create labels and pixel arrays lbls=[] pxls=[] print(len(training)) #for i in range(len(training)): for i in range(60000): l,p=training[i] lbls.append(l) pxls.append(p) labels= np.array(lbls) pixels=np.array(pxls) y=labels.reshape(-1,1) X=pixels.reshape(pixels.shape[0],-1) X1=X.T Y1=y.T # Set the dimensions of the layers. The MNIST data is 28x28 pixels= 784 # Hence input layer is 784. For the 10 digits the Softmax classifier # has to handle 10 outputs layersDimensions=[784, 15,9,10] # Works very well,lr=0.01,mini_batch =1000, total=20000 np.random.seed(1) costs = [] # Run Stochastic Gradient Descent with Learning Rate=0.01, mini batch size=1000 # number of epochs=3000 parameters = L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X1, Y1, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu', outputActivationFunc="softmax",learningRate = 0.01 ,mini_batch_size =1000, num_epochs = 3000, print_cost = True) # Compute the Confusion Matrix on Training set # Compute the training accuracy, precision and recall proba=predict_proba(parameters, X1,outputActivationFunc="softmax") #A2, cache = forwardPropagationDeep(X1, parameters) #proba=np.argmax(A2, axis=0).reshape(-1,1) a=confusion_matrix(Y1.T,proba) print(a) from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, precision_score, recall_score, f1_score print('Accuracy: {:.2f}'.format(accuracy_score(Y1.T, proba))) print('Precision: {:.2f}'.format(precision_score(Y1.T, proba,average="micro"))) print('Recall: {:.2f}'.format(recall_score(Y1.T, proba,average="micro"))) # Read the test data lbls=[] pxls=[] print(len(test)) for i in range(10000): l,p=test[i] lbls.append(l) pxls.append(p) testLabels= np.array(lbls) testPixels=np.array(pxls) ytest=testLabels.reshape(-1,1) Xtest=testPixels.reshape(testPixels.shape[0],-1) X1test=Xtest.T Y1test=ytest.T # Compute the Confusion Matrix on Test set # Compute the test accuracy, precision and recall probaTest=predict_proba(parameters, X1test,outputActivationFunc="softmax") #A2, cache = forwardPropagationDeep(X1, parameters) #proba=np.argmax(A2, axis=0).reshape(-1,1) a=confusion_matrix(Y1test.T,probaTest) print(a) from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score, precision_score, recall_score, f1_score print('Accuracy: {:.2f}'.format(accuracy_score(Y1test.T, probaTest))) print('Precision: {:.2f}'.format(precision_score(Y1test.T, probaTest,average="micro"))) print('Recall: {:.2f}'.format(recall_score(Y1test.T, probaTest,average="micro")))  ##1. Confusion Matrix of Training set 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ## [[5854 0 19 2 10 7 0 1 24 6] ## [ 1 6659 30 10 5 3 0 14 20 0] ## [ 20 24 5805 18 6 11 2 32 37 3] ## [ 5 4 175 5783 1 27 1 58 60 17] ## [ 1 21 9 0 5780 0 5 2 12 12] ## [ 29 9 21 224 6 4824 18 17 245 28] ## [ 5 4 22 1 32 12 5799 0 43 0] ## [ 3 13 148 154 18 3 0 5883 4 39] ## [ 11 34 30 21 13 16 4 7 5703 12] ## [ 10 4 1 32 135 14 1 92 134 5526]] ##2. Accuracy, Precision, Recall of Training set ## Accuracy: 0.96 ## Precision: 0.96 ## Recall: 0.96 ##3. Confusion Matrix of Test set 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ## [[ 954 1 8 0 3 3 2 4 4 1] ## [ 0 1107 6 5 0 0 1 2 14 0] ## [ 11 7 957 10 5 0 5 20 16 1] ## [ 2 3 37 925 3 13 0 8 18 1] ## [ 2 6 1 1 944 0 7 3 4 14] ## [ 12 5 4 45 2 740 24 8 42 10] ## [ 8 4 4 2 16 9 903 0 12 0] ## [ 4 10 27 18 5 1 0 940 1 22] ## [ 11 13 6 13 9 10 7 2 900 3] ## [ 8 5 1 7 50 7 0 20 29 882]] ##4. Accuracy, Precision, Recall of Training set ## Accuracy: 0.93 ## Precision: 0.93 ## Recall: 0.93 ### 4. Random dataset with Sigmoid activation – R code This is the random data set used in the Python code above which was saved as a CSV. The code is used to test a L -Layer DL network with Sigmoid Activation in R. source("DLfunctions5.R") # Read the random data set z <- as.matrix(read.csv("data.csv",header=FALSE)) x <- z[,1:2] y <- z[,3] X <- t(x) Y <- t(y) # Set the dimensions of the layer layersDimensions = c(2, 9, 9,1) # Run Gradient Descent on the data set with relu hidden unit activation # sigmoid activation unit in the output layer retvals = L_Layer_DeepModel(X, Y, layersDimensions, hiddenActivationFunc='relu', outputActivationFunc="sigmoid", learningRate = 0.3, numIterations = 5000, print_cost = True) #Plot the cost vs iterations iterations <- seq(0,5000,1000) costs=retvals$costs
df=data.frame(iterations,costs)
ggplot(df,aes(x=iterations,y=costs)) + geom_point() + geom_line(color="blue") +
ggtitle("Costs vs iterations") + xlab("Iterations") + ylab("Loss")

### 5. Spiral dataset with Softmax activation – R

The spiral data set used in the Python code above, is reused to test  multi-class classification with Softmax.

source("DLfunctions5.R")

# Setup the data
X <- Z[,1:2]
y <- Z[,3]
X <- t(X)
Y <- t(y)

# Initialize number of features, number of hidden units in hidden layer and
# number of classes
numFeats<-2 # No features
numHidden<-100 # No of hidden units
numOutput<-3 # No of classes

# Set the layer dimensions
layersDimensions = c(numFeats,numHidden,numOutput)

# Perform gradient descent with relu activation unit for hidden layer
# and softmax activation in the output
retvals = L_Layer_DeepModel(X, Y, layersDimensions,
hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",
learningRate = 0.5,
numIterations = 9000,
print_cost = True)
#Plot cost vs iterations
iterations <- seq(0,9000,1000)
costs=retvals$costs df=data.frame(iterations,costs) ggplot(df,aes(x=iterations,y=costs)) + geom_point() + geom_line(color="blue") + ggtitle("Costs vs iterations") + xlab("Iterations") + ylab("Costs") ### 6. MNIST dataset with Softmax activation – R The code below executes a L – Layer Deep Learning network with Softmax output activation, to classify the 10 handwritten digits from MNIST with Stochastic Gradient Descent. The entire 60000 data set was used to train the data. R takes almost 8 hours to process this data set with a mini-batch size of 1000. The use of ‘for’ loops is limited to iterating through epochs, mini batches and for creating the mini batches itself. All other code is vectorized. Yet, it seems to crawl. Most likely the use of ‘lists’ in R, to return multiple values is performance intensive. Some day, I will try to profile the code, and see where the issue is. However the code works! Having said that, the Confusion Matrix in R dumps a lot of interesting statistics! There is a bunch of statistical measures for each class. For e.g. the Balanced Accuracy for the digits ‘6’ and ‘9’ is around 50%. Looks like, the classifier is confused by the fact that 6 is inverted 9 and vice-versa. The accuracy on the Test data set is just around 75%. I could have played around with the number of layers, number of hidden units, learning rates, epochs etc to get a much higher accuracy. But since each test took about 8+ hours, I may work on this, some other day! source("DLfunctions5.R") source("mnist.R") #Load the mnist data load_mnist() show_digit(train$x[2,])
#Set the layer dimensions
layersDimensions=c(784, 15,9, 10) # Works at 1500
x <- t(train$x) X <- x[,1:60000] y <-train$y
y1 <- y[1:60000]
y2 <- as.matrix(y1)
Y=t(y2)

# Subset 32768 random samples from MNIST
permutation = c(sample(2^15))
# Randomly shuffle the training data
X1 = X[, permutation]
y1 = Y[1, permutation]
y2 <- as.matrix(y1)
Y1=t(y2)

# Execute Stochastic Gradient Descent on the entire training set
# with Softmax activation
retvalsSGD= L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X1, Y1, layersDimensions,
hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",
learningRate = 0.05,
mini_batch_size = 512,
num_epochs = 1,
print_cost = True)


# Compute the Confusion Matrix
library(caret)
library(e1071)
predictions=predictProba(retvalsSGD[['parameters']], X,hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="softmax")
confusionMatrix(predictions,Y)
# Confusion Matrix on the Training set
> confusionMatrix(predictions,Y)
Confusion Matrix and Statistics

Reference
Prediction    0    1    2    3    4    5    6    7    8    9
0 5738    1   21    5   16   17    7   15    9   43
1    5 6632   21   24   25    3    2   33   13  392
2   12   32 5747  106   25   28    3   27   44 4779
3    0   27   12 5715    1   21    1   20    1   13
4   10    5   21   18 5677    9   17   30   15  166
5  142   21   96  136   93 5306 5884   43   60  413
6    0    0    0    0    0    0    0    0    0    0
7    6    9   13   13    3    4    0 6085    0   55
8    8   12    7   43    1   32    2    7 5703   69
9    2    3   20   71    1    1    2    5    6   19

Overall Statistics

Accuracy : 0.777
95% CI : (0.7737, 0.7804)
No Information Rate : 0.1124
P-Value [Acc > NIR] : < 2.2e-16

Kappa : 0.7524
Mcnemar's Test P-Value : NA

Statistics by Class:

Class: 0 Class: 1 Class: 2 Class: 3 Class: 4 Class: 5 Class: 6
Sensitivity           0.96877   0.9837  0.96459  0.93215  0.97176  0.97879  0.00000
Specificity           0.99752   0.9903  0.90644  0.99822  0.99463  0.87380  1.00000
Pos Pred Value        0.97718   0.9276  0.53198  0.98348  0.95124  0.43513      NaN
Neg Pred Value        0.99658   0.9979  0.99571  0.99232  0.99695  0.99759  0.90137
Prevalence            0.09872   0.1124  0.09930  0.10218  0.09737  0.09035  0.09863
Detection Rate        0.09563   0.1105  0.09578  0.09525  0.09462  0.08843  0.00000
Detection Prevalence  0.09787   0.1192  0.18005  0.09685  0.09947  0.20323  0.00000
Balanced Accuracy     0.98314   0.9870  0.93551  0.96518  0.98319  0.92629  0.50000
Class: 7 Class: 8  Class: 9
Sensitivity            0.9713  0.97471 0.0031938
Specificity            0.9981  0.99666 0.9979464
Pos Pred Value         0.9834  0.96924 0.1461538
Neg Pred Value         0.9967  0.99727 0.9009521
Prevalence             0.1044  0.09752 0.0991500
Detection Rate         0.1014  0.09505 0.0003167
Detection Prevalence   0.1031  0.09807 0.0021667
Balanced Accuracy      0.9847  0.98568 0.5005701

# Confusion Matrix on the Training set xtest <- t(test$x) Xtest <- xtest[,1:10000] ytest <-test$y ytest1 <- ytest[1:10000] ytest2 <- as.matrix(ytest1) Ytest=t(ytest2)

Confusion Matrix and Statistics

Reference
Prediction    0    1    2    3    4    5    6    7    8    9
0  950    2    2    3    0    6    9    4    7    6
1    3 1110    4    2    9    0    3   12    5   74
2    2    6  965   21    9   14    5   16   12  789
3    1    2    9  908    2   16    0   21    2    6
4    0    1    9    5  938    1    8    6    8   39
5   19    5   25   35   20  835  929    8   54   67
6    0    0    0    0    0    0    0    0    0    0
7    4    4    7   10    2    4    0  952    5    6
8    1    5    8   14    2   16    2    3  876   21
9    0    0    3   12    0    0    2    6    5    1

Overall Statistics

Accuracy : 0.7535
95% CI : (0.7449, 0.7619)
No Information Rate : 0.1135
P-Value [Acc > NIR] : < 2.2e-16

Kappa : 0.7262
Mcnemar's Test P-Value : NA

Statistics by Class:

Class: 0 Class: 1 Class: 2 Class: 3 Class: 4 Class: 5 Class: 6
Sensitivity            0.9694   0.9780   0.9351   0.8990   0.9552   0.9361   0.0000
Specificity            0.9957   0.9874   0.9025   0.9934   0.9915   0.8724   1.0000
Pos Pred Value         0.9606   0.9083   0.5247   0.9390   0.9241   0.4181      NaN
Neg Pred Value         0.9967   0.9972   0.9918   0.9887   0.9951   0.9929   0.9042
Prevalence             0.0980   0.1135   0.1032   0.1010   0.0982   0.0892   0.0958
Detection Rate         0.0950   0.1110   0.0965   0.0908   0.0938   0.0835   0.0000
Detection Prevalence   0.0989   0.1222   0.1839   0.0967   0.1015   0.1997   0.0000
Balanced Accuracy      0.9825   0.9827   0.9188   0.9462   0.9733   0.9043   0.5000
Class: 7 Class: 8  Class: 9
Sensitivity            0.9261   0.8994 0.0009911
Specificity            0.9953   0.9920 0.9968858
Pos Pred Value         0.9577   0.9241 0.0344828
Neg Pred Value         0.9916   0.9892 0.8989068
Prevalence             0.1028   0.0974 0.1009000
Detection Rate         0.0952   0.0876 0.0001000
Detection Prevalence   0.0994   0.0948 0.0029000
Balanced Accuracy      0.9607   0.9457 0.4989384


### 7. Random dataset with Sigmoid activation – Octave

The Octave code below uses the random data set used by Python. The code below implements a L-Layer Deep Learning with Sigmoid Activation.


source("DL5functions.m")

X=data(:,1:2);
Y=data(:,3);
#Set the layer dimensions
layersDimensions = [2 9 7  1]; #tanh=-0.5(ok), #relu=0.1 best!
[weights biases costs]=L_Layer_DeepModel(X', Y', layersDimensions,
hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="sigmoid",
learningRate = 0.1,
numIterations = 10000);
# Plot cost vs iterations
plotCostVsIterations(10000,costs);


### 8. Spiral dataset with Softmax activation – Octave

The  code below uses the spiral data set used by Python above. The code below implements a L-Layer Deep Learning with Softmax Activation.

# Read the data

# Setup the data
X=data(:,1:2);
Y=data(:,3);

# Set the number of features, number of hidden units in hidden layer and number of classess
numFeats=2; #No features
numHidden=100; # No of hidden units
numOutput=3; # No of  classes
# Set the layer dimensions
layersDimensions = [numFeats numHidden  numOutput];
#Perform gradient descent with softmax activation unit
[weights biases costs]=L_Layer_DeepModel(X', Y', layersDimensions,
hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",
learningRate = 0.1,
numIterations = 10000);


### 9. MNIST dataset with Softmax activation – Octave

The code below implements a L-Layer Deep Learning Network in Octave with Softmax output activation unit, for classifying the 10 handwritten digits in the MNIST dataset. Unfortunately, Octave can only index to around 10000 training at a time,  and I was getting an error ‘error: out of memory or dimension too large for Octave’s index type error: called from…’, when I tried to create a batch size of 20000.  So I had to come with a work around to create a batch size of 10000 (randomly) and then use a mini-batch of 1000 samples and execute Stochastic Gradient Descent. The performance was good. Octave takes about 15 minutes, on a batch size of 10000 and a mini batch of 1000.

I thought if the performance was not good, I could iterate through these random batches and refining the gradients as follows

# Pseudo code that could be used since Octave only allows 10K batches
# at a time
# Randomly create weights
[weights biases] = initialize_weights()
for i=1:k
# Create a random permutation and create a random batch
permutation = randperm(10000);
X=trainX(permutation,:);
Y=trainY(permutation,:);
# Compute weights from SGD and update weights in the next batch update
[weights biases costs]=L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X,Y,mini_bactch=1000,weights, biases,...);
...
endfor
# Load the MNIST data
#Create a random permutatation from 60K
permutation = randperm(10000);
disp(length(permutation));

# Use this 10K as the batch
X=trainX(permutation,:);
Y=trainY(permutation,:);

# Set layer dimensions
layersDimensions=[784, 15, 9, 10];

# Run Stochastic Gradient descent with batch size=10K and mini_batch_size=1000
[weights biases costs]=L_Layer_DeepModel_SGD(X', Y', layersDimensions,
hiddenActivationFunc='relu',
outputActivationFunc="softmax",
learningRate = 0.01,
mini_batch_size = 2000, num_epochs = 5000);


#### 9. Final thoughts

Here are some of my final thoughts after working on Python, R and Octave in this series and in other projects
1. Python, with its highly optimized numpy library, is ideally suited for creating Deep Learning Models, which have a lot of matrix manipulations. Python is a real workhorse when it comes to Deep Learning computations.
2. R is somewhat clunky in comparison to its cousin Python in handling matrices or in returning multiple values. But R’s statistical libraries, dplyr, and ggplot are really superior to the Python peers. Also, I find R handles  dataframes,  much better than Python.
3. Octave is a no-nonsense,minimalist language which is very efficient in handling matrices. It is ideally suited for implementing Machine Learning and Deep Learning from scratch. But Octave has its problems and cannot handle large matrix sizes, and also lacks the statistical libaries of R and Python. They possibly exist in its sibling, Matlab

#### Conclusion

Building a Deep Learning Network from scratch is quite challenging, time-consuming but nevertheless an exciting task.  While the statements in the different languages for manipulating matrices, summing up columns, finding columns which have ones don’t take more than a single statement, extreme care has to be taken to ensure that the statements work well for any dimension.  The lessons learnt from creating L -Layer Deep Learning network  are many and well worth it. Give it a try!

Hasta la vista! I’ll be back, so stick around!
Watch this space!

To see all posts click Index of Posts

# Presentation on ‘Machine Learning in plain English – Part 2’

This presentation is a continuation of my earlier presentation Presentation on ‘Machine Learning in plain English – Part 1’. As the title suggests, the presentation is devoid of any math or programming constructs, and just focuses on the concepts and approaches to different Machine Learning algorithms. In this 2nd part, I discuss KNN regression, KNN classification, Cross Validation techniques like (LOOCV, K-Fold)   feature selection methods including best-fit,forward-fit and backward fit and finally Ridge (L2) and Lasso Regression (L1)

If you would like to see the implementations of the discussed algorithms, in this presentation, do check out my book   My book ‘Practical Machine Learning with R and Python’ on Amazon

To see all post click Index of posts

# My book ‘Practical Machine Learning with R and Python’ on Amazon

Note: The 3rd edition of this book is now available My book ‘Practical Machine Learning in R and Python: Third edition’ on Amazon

My book ‘Practical Machine Learning with R and Python: Second Edition – Machine Learning in stereo’ is now available in both paperback ($10.99) and kindle ($7.99/Rs449) versions. In this book I implement some of the most common, but important Machine Learning algorithms in R and equivalent Python code. This is almost like listening to parallel channels of music in stereo!
1. Practical machine with R and Python: Third Edition – Machine Learning in Stereo(Paperback-$12.99) 2. Practical machine with R and Python Third Edition – Machine Learning in Stereo(Kindle-$8.99/Rs449)
This book is ideal both for beginners and the experts in R and/or Python. Those starting their journey into datascience and ML will find the first 3 chapters useful, as they touch upon the most important programming constructs in R and Python and also deal with equivalent statements in R and Python. Those who are expert in either of the languages, R or Python, will find the equivalent code ideal for brushing up on the other language. And finally,those who are proficient in both languages, can use the R and Python implementations to internalize the ML algorithms better.

Here is a look at the topics covered

Essential R …………………………………….. 7
Essential Python for Datascience ………………..   54
R vs Python ……………………………………. 77
Regression of a continuous variable ………………. 96
Classification and Cross Validation ……………….113
Regression techniques and regularization …………. 134
SVMs, Decision Trees and Validation curves …………175
Splines, GAMs, Random Forests and Boosting …………202
PCA, K-Means and Hierarchical Clustering …………. 234

Hope you have a great time learning as I did while implementing these algorithms!

# Neural Networks: The mechanics of backpropagation

The initial work in the  ‘Backpropagation Algorithm’  started in the 1980’s and led to an explosion of interest in Neural Networks and  the application of backpropagation

The ‘Backpropagation’ algorithm computes the minimum of an error function with respect to the weights in the Neural Network. It uses the method of gradient descent. The combination of weights in a multi-layered neural network, which minimizes the error/cost function is considered to be a solution of the learning problem.

In the Neural Network above
$out_{o1} =\sum_{i} w_{i}*x_{i}$
$E = 1/2(target - out)^{2}$
$\partial E/\partial out= 1/2*2*(target - out) *-1 = -(target - out)$
$\partial E/\partial w_{i} =\partial E/\partial y* \partial y/\partial w_{i}$
$\partial E/\partial w_{i} = -(target - out) * x_{i}$

Checkout my book ‘Deep Learning from first principles: Second Edition – In vectorized Python, R and Octave’. My book starts with the implementation of a simple 2-layer Neural Network and works its way to a generic L-Layer Deep Learning Network, with all the bells and whistles. The derivations have been discussed in detail. The code has been extensively commented and included in its entirety in the Appendix sections. My book is available on Amazon as paperback ($18.99) and in kindle version($9.99/Rs449).

Perceptrons and single layered neural networks can only classify, if the sample space is linearly separable. For non-linear decision boundaries, a multi layered neural network with  backpropagation is required to generate more complex boundaries.The backpropagation algorithm, computes the minimum of the error function in weight space using the method of gradient descent. This computation of the gradient, requires the activation function to be both differentiable and continuous. Hence the sigmoid or logistic function is typically chosen as the activation function at every layer.

This post looks at a 3 layer neural network with 1 input, 1 hidden and 1 output. To a large extent this post is based on Matt Mazur’s detailed “A step by step backpropagation example“, and Prof Hinton’s “Neural Networks for Machine Learning” at Coursera and a few other sources.

While Matt Mazur’s post uses example values, I generate the formulas for the gradient derivatives for each weight in the hidden and input layers. I intend to implement a vector version of backpropagation in Octave, R and Python. So this post is a prequel to that.

The 3 layer neural network is as below

Some basic derivations which are used in backpropagation

Chain rule of differentiation
Let y=f(u)
and u=g(x) then
$\partial y/\partial x = \partial y/\partial u * \partial u/\partial x$

An important result
$y=1/(1+e^{-z})$
Let $x= 1 + e^{-z}$  then
$y = 1/x$
$\partial y/\partial x = -1/x^{2}$
$\partial x/\partial z = -e^{-z}$

Using the chain rule of differentiation we get
$\partial y/\partial z = \partial y/\partial x * \partial x/\partial z$
$=-1/(1+e^{-z})^{2}* -e^{-z} = e^{-z}/(1+e^{-z})^{2}$
Therefore $\partial y/\partial z = y(1-y)$                                   -(A)

1) Feed forward network
The net output at the 1st hidden layer
$in_{h1} = w_{1}i_{1} + w_{2}i_{2} + b_{1}$
$in_{h2} = w_{3}i_{1} + w_{4}i_{2} + b_{1}$

The sigmoid/logistic function function is used to generate the activation outputs for each hidden layer. The sigmoid is chosen because it is continuous and also has a continuous derivative

$out_{h1} = 1/1+e^{-in_{h1}}$
$out_{h2} = 1/1+e^{-in_{h2}}$

The net output at the output layer
$in_{o1} = w_{5}out_{h_{1}} + w_{6}out_{h_{2}} + b_{2}$
$in_{o2} = w_{7}out_{h_{1}} + w_{8}out_{h_{2}} + b_{2}$

Total error
$E_{total} = 1/2\sum (target - output)^{2}$
$E_{total} = E_{o1} + E_{o2}$
$E_{total} = 1/2(target_{o_{1}} - out_{o_{1}})^{2} + 1/2(target_{o_{2}} - out_{o_{2}})^{2}$

2)The backwards pass
In the backward pass we need to compute how the squared error changes with changing weight. i.e we compute $\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{i}$ for each weight $w_{i}$. This is shown below

A squared error is assumed

Error gradient  with $w_{5}$

$\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{5} = \partial E_{total}/\partial out_{o_{1}} * \partial out_{o_{1}}/\partial in_{o_{1}} * \partial in_{o_{1}}/ \partial w_{5}$                -(B)

Since
$E_{total} = 1/2\sum (target - output)^{2}$
$E_{total} = 1/2(target_{o_{1}} - out_{o_{1}})^{2} + 1/2(target_{o_{2}} - out_{o_{2}})^{2}$
$\partial E _{total}/\partial out_{o1} = \partial E_{o1}/\partial out_{o1} + \partial E_{o2}/\partial out_{o1}$
$\partial E _{total}/\partial out_{o1} = \partial /\partial _{out_{o1}}[1/2(target_{01}-out_{01})^{2}- 1/2(target_{02}-out_{02})^{2}]$
$\partial E _{total}/\partial out_{o1} = 2 * 1/2*(target_{01} - out_{01}) *-1 + 0$

Now considering the 2nd term in (B)
$\partial out_{o1}/\partial in_{o1} = \partial/\partial in_{o1} [1/(1+e^{-in_{o1}})]$

Using result (A)
$\partial out_{o1}/\partial in_{o1} = \partial/\partial in_{o1} [1/(1+e^{-in_{o1}})] = out_{o1}(1-out_{o1})$

The 3rd term in (B)
$\partial in_{o1}/\partial w_{5} = \partial/\partial w_{5} [w_{5}*out_{h1} + w_{6}*out_{h2}] = out_{h1}$
$\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{5}=-(target_{o1} - out_{o1}) * out_{o1} *(1-out_{o1}) * out_{h1}$

Having computed $\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{5}$, we now perform gradient descent, by computing a new weight, assuming a learning rate $\alpha$
$w_{5}^{+} = w_{5} - \alpha * \partial E_{total}/\partial w_{5}$

If we do this for $\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{6}$ we would get
$\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{6}=-(target_{02} - out_{02}) * out_{02} *(1-out_{02}) * out_{h2}$

3)Hidden layer

We now compute how the total error changes for a change in weight $w_{1}$
$\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{1}= \partial E_{total}/\partial out_{h1}* \partial out_{h1}/\partial in_{h1} * \partial in_{h1}/\partial w_{1}$ – (C)

Using
$E_{total} = E_{o1} + E_{o2}$ we get
$\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{1}= (\partial E_{o1}/\partial out_{h1}+ \partial E_{o2}/\partial out_{h1}) * \partial out_{h1}/\partial in_{h1} * \partial in_{h1}/\partial w_{1}$
$\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{1}=(\partial E_{o1}/\partial out_{h1}+ \partial E_{o2}/\partial out_{h1}) * out_{h1}*(1-out_{h1})*i_{1}$     -(D)

Considering the 1st term in (C)
$\partial E_{total}/\partial out_{h1}= \partial E_{o1}/\partial out_{h1}+ \partial E_{o2}/\partial out_{h1}$

Now
$\partial E_{o1}/\partial out_{h1} = \partial E_{o1}/\partial out_{o1} *\partial out_{o1}/\partial in_{01} * \partial in_{o1}/\partial out_{h1}$
$\partial E_{o2}/\partial out_{h1} = \partial E_{o2}/\partial out_{o2} *\partial out_{o2}/\partial in_{02} * \partial in_{o2}/\partial out_{h1}$

which gives the following
$\partial E_{o1}/\partial out_{o1} *\partial out_{o1}/\partial in_{o1} * \partial in_{o1}/\partial out_{h1} =-(target_{o1}-out_{o1}) *out_{o1}(1-out_{o1})*w_{5}$ – (E)
$\partial E_{o2}/\partial out_{o2} *\partial out_{o2}/\partial in_{02} * \partial in_{o2}/\partial out_{h1} =-(target_{o2}-out_{o2}) *out_{o2}(1-out_{o2})*w_{6}$ – (F)

Combining (D), (E) & (F) we get
$\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{1} = -[(target_{o1}-out_{o1}) *out_{o1}(1-out_{o1})*w_{5} + (target_{o2}-out_{o2}) *out_{o2}(1-out_{o2})*w_{6}]*out_{h1}*(1-out_{h1})*i_{1}$

This can be represented as
$\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{1} = -\sum_{i}[(target_{oi}-out_{oi}) *out_{oi}(1-out_{oi})*w_{j}]*out_{h1}*(1-out_{h1})*i_{1}$

With this derivative a new value of $w_{1}$ is computed
$w_{1}^{+} = w_{1} - \alpha * \partial E_{total}/\partial w_{1}$

Hence there are 2 important results
At the output layer we have
a) $\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{j}=-(target_{oi} - out_{oi}) * out_{oi} *(1-out_{oi}) * out_{hi}$
At each hidden layer we compute
b) $\partial E_{total}/\partial w_{k} = -\sum_{i}[(target_{oi}-out_{oi}) *out_{oi}(1-out_{oi})*w_{j}]*out_{hk}*(1-out_{hk})*i_{k}$

Backpropagation, was very successful in the early years,  but the algorithm does have its problems for e.g the issue of the ‘vanishing’ and ‘exploding’ gradient. Yet it is a very key development in Neural Networks, and  the issues with the backprop gradients have been addressed through techniques such as the  momentum method and adaptive learning rate etc.

In this post. I derive the weights at the output layer and the hidden layer. As I already mentioned above, I intend to implement a vector version of the backpropagation algorithm in Octave, R and Python in the days to come.

Watch this space! I’ll be back

P.S. If you find any typos/errors, do let me know!

References
1. Neural Networks for Machine Learning by Prof Geoffrey Hinton
2. A Step by Step Backpropagation Example by Matt Mazur
3. The Backpropagation algorithm by R Rojas
4. Backpropagation Learning Artificial Neural Networks David S Touretzky
5. Artificial Intelligence, Prof Sudeshna Sarkar, NPTEL

To see all my posts go to ‘Index of Posts